Managing Change in Healthcare Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Managing Change in Healthcare - Essay Example Some of the most favored approaches that have been preferred are cycle-time reduction, process engineering, and total quality management (TQM), with which companies have tried to flatten the organizational structure [3]. However, structural change programs on its own are likely to fail as they do not account for the human element, which actually forms the structure. Change management must work towards removing fear, cynicism, and defensiveness from the minds of the people. In the healthcare sector of US, the practice of midwifery was almost eliminated by concerted effort of university educated physicians [11]. The changes in perceptions about the profession of midwifery and its reinstatement into the healthcare industry, started in 1939, with the Frontier Nursing Service and has since then passed through various changes and reconstruction [11]. To enhance the performance of an organization it is important to improve the performance of the individuals and groups that comprise that organization. When organizations set new goals, they must also take care to see that the employees are made aware of these new goals well in advance or better still the company can set the new goals after consulting the employees. The employees must be backed by timely and adequate infrastructure to attain the goals; proper feedbacks and timely interventions must be integrated into the system. The Midwives Alliance of North America (MANA) was formed in 1982 and the struggle and persistent effort of the initial women of the midwifery profession has enabled it to get a legitimate status in 33 states of the country [11]. Managing Change - The Impact of Relevant Theory on the Change Process Aims Technological development has ushered in changes across organizations and our personal world. In the midst of these changes to better and sophisticated machines, it is important to remember that people form the basis of organizations. Technology makes structured and repetitive work easy while people use their intelligence to think, create, and solve. The major change today is the transformation of the work force from an information worker to an information user or what can be better described as a knowledge worker. Peter Drucker in his 'The New Society of Organization' has said, that the world economy is transforming to a knowledge society, where knowledge is the primary resource for the economy and for the individuals. In such an economy, according to Drucker, the competitive advantage comes not from the research and development of technology but from the skill and expertise of the knowledge workers, who form the organization [2]. The legitimacy of midwifery as a practice was established by the vision and persistence of the traditional midwifery experts, who encouraged self regulation in the next generation. Their efforts paid off and by the 1980's the standards of practice and certification began to be established in one state after another. The Midwives Alliance of North America (MANA) was formed in 1982, to help the movement gain support and legitimacy [11]. Issues Affecting Change and Personal Behavior Healthcare organizations are different from other organizations, as they involve something beyond business. According to

The strength of Ammonia Double Essay Example for Free

The strength of Ammonia Double Essay In this investigation I am trying to find out if doubling the strength of ammonia doubles the rate of its diffusion. There are a few factors that may have an effect on the results of this investigation. For example, the size of the test tube, the distances between each piece of litmus paper and the amount of ammonia on the wool. The longer or wider the test tube the more time it will take for the ammonia molecules to diffuse along the tube which would increase the time on the results table. A similar principle would apply to the distance between litmus papers. The ammonia is most likely to reach the litmus paper closest to it first and then to the second as it will take more time for the ammonia molecules to diffuse across the tube. Also each time the ammonia is applied to the wool it must be the same amount for every test carried out, otherwise the test would be unfair. This is because the amount of ammonia affects the speed at which the molecules travel. If too much ammonia is applied then the molecules would move faster along the tube, but if there is less ammonia the molecules would move slowly down the tube. Three additional things that affect the rate of diffusion of the ammonia include molecular size, temperature and the concentration of the ammonia. My investigation is aimed at discovering the effects of doubling the strength (concentration) of ammonia on the rate of diffusion. I think increasing the concentration of ammonia will decrease the amount of time it will take for the litmus paper to turn blue i. e. diffusion will be faster. However, decreasing the concentration of ammonia will increase the amount of time it will take for the litmus paper to turn blue i.e. diffusion will be slower. Doubling the strength of ammonia could have an effect on the rate of diffusion because it doubles the number of molecules, which collide more. Consequently, the particles in a gas will spread out and thus have greater space to move around more quickly and easily. This is how ammonia particles will look in the form of a gas as they collide and spread: To make this investigation a fair test, I am going to space out the litmus papers but not too far apart and evenly spread out each of the seven litmus papers I intend to use. I will also use the same volume of ammonia to make it a fair test each time. The concentration will, however, gradually be doubled. I will start with 0. 5% double it to 1%, 2% and finally 4%. To carry out this experiment using a stopwatch to measure how long it takes for each red litmus paper to turn blue. I will take 1 reading every time a litmus paper changes colour, which will result in 7 readings for every test. Then I will obtain the results taken by two other people in my team and average them out by adding the results up and dividing by 3. This will give me a reliable answer as to how long it took for each of the seven litmus papers to turn from red to blue. So the number of tests to be performed in total is 3 and so by multiplying 3 with 7 will equal 21 results being taken from 21 litmus papers changing colour. These results will be taken in seconds but I shall convert any that are given in minutes by the stopwatch, into seconds. OBTAINING EVIDENCE The table below show my results: The Concentration Of Ammonia Litmus paper no  To perform this experiment safely it was necessary that we wore goggles and used tongs to pick up the cotton wool that had ammonia on it. ANALYSING RESULTS/DRAW CONCLUSION I have drawn a graph on a piece of graph paper to show the pattern in my results. The pattern shows that as you double the concentration of ammonia, the quicker it takes to change colour from red to blue. This is because, as I had predicted, increasing the concentration also increases the number of molecules, which collide more. Consequently, the ammonia molecules spread out to make greater space to move around more quickly and easily. EVALUATING. The experiment appears to have been successful as I acted according to my plans and achieved the results I had expected. My results could be improved by carrying out the tests a few more times, in order to achieve more accurate results. I can conclude from my results that doubling the strength of ammonia doubles the rate of its diffusion. A pattern in my results also showed that a as you double the concentration of ammonia, the average time is twice as less. However, this pattern was not apparent when I increased the concentration of ammonia from 0. 5% to 1%. On that occasion it seems that the time had reduced by more than just a half. The reduction in time was usually approximately by half, but by drawing a line of best fit through my graph, it can be said that doubling the concentration of ammonia does double the rate of diffusion. Show preview only The above preview is unformatted text This student written piece of work is one of many that can be found in our GCSE Patterns of Behaviour section. Download this essay Print Save Not the one? .

Developing Leadership and a Team

Developing Leadership and a Team What is Team? According to Dee Hock (1999), Founder and CEO Emeritus of Visa International says, Control is not leadership; management is not leadership; leadership is leadership. If you seek to lead, invest at least 50% of your time leading yourself for your own purpose, ethics, principles, motivation, and conduct. Invest at least 20% leading those with authority over you and 15% leading your friends. If you do not understand you work for your mislabelled â€Å"subordinates,† then you know nothing of leadership. You know only tyranny (an absolute power). Team Development Participating in or observing the development of a team is absolutely interesting, sometimes it is disturbing, often both. So many factors influence the process, whether the team is to work face to face or electronically or in some combination of contexts. Developing by Stages It is traditional to talk about phases of team development, if each group or team followed a nice linear growth sequence. Most teams however, are not that predictable. Each develops through its own process but each also manage issues that brings its members together, drive them apart, push them to accomplish goals, hold them back, move them forward. These issues arise in different sequences for different teams, being aware of them can help to share leadership as we recognise the development issues in your team. Consider the following â€Å"phases† not as specific periods but as development issues that vary from team to team. Phases as Development Issues Researcher has noticed that short-term groups not teams proceed through orientation through groups, conflict, emergence of a proposed decision and mutual reinforcement as well as commitment of the group to a decision (Fisher, 1970). Other observations have similarly classified stages as forming (orienting to one another), storming (conflicting), norming (becoming a team with processes for managing strife), performing (getting the job done), and adjourning (saying good bye). (Tuckman and Jenson, 1977). Source: Self-Copied from http://www.jiscinfonet.ac.uk/InfoKits/infokit-related-files/tuckman-model-pic Developmental Issues for Specific Team The developmental patterns just discussed to understand the processes a group might experience, but the most useful information is that how your team develops depends in part on its type and its purpose or purposes. Gersick (1988) observed real world project teams, fund raising committees, corporate and health care teams and university teams. All had specific projects and tasks, used shared leadership and met for an extended period of time. Gersicks observations directly relate to the kinds of teams most people experience, He found a general pattern: 1. At their first meetings, teams activities varied with their respective tasks 2. Several meetings dealt with conflicts, getting information, and working through issues 3. The mid point crisis meeting was focused according to the teams purpose. Various teams dealt with decisions about goals, revising drafts of reports, outlining programs or managing conflicts. 4. After this transition, teams went through another series of meetings to wo rk out details of their tasks. 5. This led to the final completion meeting, in which each team finalised its work according to the type and purpose of the team. Leadership skills, approaches and strategies Most recently, two theories of leadership has emerged. Bass (1990) first distinguished between two of them: transactional leadership, which exchanges rewards for performance and transformational leadership, which elevates, motivates, inspires and develops the team. Transactional leaders set goals, clarify desired outcomes, provide feedback and give subordinates rewards for good work. On the other hand, transformational leaders motivate their followers through more subtle- but very effective means and these strategies tend to result in high worker satisfaction (Sparks and Schenk, 2001). The key achieving sustainable business success is to have excellence in leadership at all three levels. Strategic, operational and team leaders need to work harmoniously together as the organisations leadership team. The most common and most expensive error that organisations are making at present is to focus leadership development on their more senior managers, so that become their entire ‘strategy. In doing, they are completely ignoring their team leaders. Yet it is the team leader who is closest to the customer. Make sure that the strategy embraces all three levels. There is useful distinction to be made between strategic thinking and strategic planning. Leadership strategy should evolve and guided by a small steering group as a part of overall business strategy. It should be longer term, for a strategy worth the name should be three dimensional: †¢ Importance-it really has to matter †¢ long term- it takes time to grow trees †¢ multi factored-it takes more than one element or approach to make strategy Different Leadership styles This style works just fine for a team of real experts who want to share leadership and charge ahead. For other teams, however, productivity, quality, involvement and satisfaction suffer. Authoritarian (or autocratic) leadership is just what it sounds like. The authoritarian leader keep tight control, runs meetings by the book, sets schedules, and may use coercive or reward power. Authoritarian leadership often increases productivity in the short term, but it also increases aggression and turnover rates among members. Some people equate authoritarianism with leadership, however and their expectations are met by an authoritarian leader. Democratic leadership fits the western ideal. The democratic leader ensures that everyone is heard, guides and facilitates discussion and decision making, and shares power. Democratic leaders do three important things. First, they make sure everyone in the group feels responsible for outcomes. Second, they enhance the groups feelings of empowerment. Finally, they create processes through which the team can make effective decisions. Overtime, each member in the group develops the expertise (and, hopefully, the desire) to perform these ro les as well; ultimately everyone can take turns serving as both leaders and followers. According to Likert, R. in 1961 distinguished between four key styles or systems of leadership. System 1: Exploitative autocratic- which is the essence of authoritarian style System 2: Benevolent authoritative- is basically paternalistic style. There is a limited element of reward, but communication is restricted. Policy is made at the top but there is some restricted delegation with in strictly defined procedures. System 3: Participative-The leaser has some incomplete confidence in subordinates, listens to them but controls decision making, motivates by reward and a level of involvement and will use the ideas and suggestions of subordinates constructively. System 4: Democratic- Management gives economic rewards, rather than pats on the head, utilises full group participation and involves teams in goal setting and improving work methods and communication flows up and down. There is a close psychol ogical relationship between superiors and subordinates. Decision making is permitted at all levels and is integrated into the formal structure with reference to the organisational chart. He recognised that each style is relevant in some situations; for example in a crisis, a system 1 approach is usually required. Alternatively when introducing a new system of work, system 4 would be more effective. It shows that effective managers are those who adopt either a system 3 or a system 4 leadership style. Both are seen as being based on trust and paying attention to the needs of both the organisation and employees. Developing Leadership skills It is very easy to explain leadership, but it is hard to practise it. Action comes first in leadership and then skills. People always like to follow the good leaders because they trust and respect them, rather than following the leadership skills they have. Leadership depends on the skills of Management but it is quite different from Management. Management really depends on the planning, company and communication skills. Leadership should have such type of qualities like integration, honesty, and commitment; also have knowledge to share the ideas with his team members and mutual understanding, sincerity, passion. New and experienced leader alike, decision making has gown more complicated then ever. Leaders must make choices quickly often with the small information at hand. If we want to develop a greater tolerance for ambiguity and be willing to constantly reinvent the way your teams operate. Also want to gather more input on key decisions from people at every level of your organisation, as well as learn how to assess the reasons behind a decision before taking the force and implementing it. In 1999, for example, management thinkers and executives from the private and non profit sectors gathered at a conference summon by the Center for Creative Leadership (CCL), a think tank in Greensboro, NC. The goal was to examine current leadership practices and needs. Participants focused on the fact that changing conditions in many organisations require leaders to develop new skills and perspectives. References: Businessballs.com Harvard Business School, (2005). Becoming an effective leader, Publish in USA ISBN: 1-59139-780-9 The Role of Communication in Leadership Strategic communication has never been more important than it is today. Employees expect to know about their companys plans, and they assume that they will participate in their companys growth. That means that leaders must take communication a personal priority and drive its value throughout the organisation. Mai and Akerson argue that leadership communication is not simply a technical skill, but â€Å"the critical leadership competency for guiding organisations through conditions of heightened transition and turmoil.† Any competitive company they said has three critical goals: †¢ To attract and retain talent †¢ To maintain a steady course through transitions †¢ To stay at the leading edge of its industry through constant innovation and renewal To accomplish these goals, leaders must do three key things: 1- Create a Community First leaders must be community developers, fostering trust and creating meaningful work environment. A direct approach often works well. Saturn, where plant or unit managers take the time to welcome each new hire and explains the companys philosophy. Employees coming from organisations where they had never spoken one-on-one with a senior manager are pleasantly surprised by this. Such personalised face-to-face communication with employees conveys honesty and sincerity. Transparent, honest communication is essential: when leaders communicate candidly, employees are likely to reciprocate, extending confidence back to the company. 2- Steer a Steady Course Leaders should act as navigators, setting direction and instigating action, particularly during times of transition. At the annual meeting, the companys leaders met in groups to discuss the organisations future, stimulated by worksheets that provided them with information about deregulation across other industries, statistics and possible new company configurations. After the meeting leaders took the work sheets and held similar meetings of their own with in their individual divisions. 3- Commit to continual renewal Case Study of Tesco Tesco uses critical success factors as a basis for its management and leadership competencies. According to Helen Cecil, head of HR, the emphasis at senior management level is on developing leaders rather than managers. This aim, she says is based on the companys recognition that â€Å"the difference we deliver to our customers is through our people. Management levels in stores have been reduced from seven or eight down to three and She also said that Staff now expects much more from managers. Managers have to be able to inspire, initiate change and motivate staff to deliver results. The company also recognises that the potential benefits of new technology, new management systems and new organisational structures cannot realise without effective leadership. Tesco is developing global leaders as the business becomes more international. The company uses business schools and external consultants, with in company assessment panels that identify future leaders whose development is focused on strategy, operations and human resource management.

west side stadium :: essays research papers

West Side Stadium   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There is a lot of controversy over the plans for a new West Side stadium. The mayor says the stadium is necessary to win the honor of being the Host City for the 2012 Olympics. The stadium will also be home of the Jets. His opinion is that the stadium would do nothing but good for the city despite criticism from people saying the money should be added to the education budget. I believe the stadium should be built.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  One thing that the stadium would do that I feel is important is that if we were to get the Olympics it would give the world something besides 9/11 when they think of New York. That is very important to me because I am tired of every time I’m on a trip some one telling me there sorry when they find out I live in New York. The money the Olympics will bring into the city will also be pretty substantial. It could really help to boost the economy. There will be many wealthy people visiting the city, some for the very first time. Athletes but trainers, hardcore fans, camera crews and reporters from all over the world. Their personal spending alone will probably add up to at least a million dollars. The West Side stadium is a terrific idea for a lot of other reasons as well. The West Side stadium project will create hundreds of jobs bringing down the unemployment rate. Which is especially good in a city that has had an on going problem with its unemployment rate. The West Side Stadium will also put an end to the monopoly that cablevision has over sports entertainment in this city. The same company that funds the ads bad mouthing the mayor and the plans for a West Side Stadium.

How Do Economic Incentives Affect Social Preferences and Behavior Essay

For decades economic theories have relied heavily on the effectiveness of material incentives (Fehr & Gachter, 2001). According to the traditional exchange theory all people are exclusively motivated by their own material self-interest. It predicts that the introduction of a penalty will reduce the occurrence of the behavior that is subject to the fine. On the other hand it states that introducing a material incentive will lead to an increase of the behavior related to the bonus. Based on economic theory, incentives have become increasingly popular and are used to increase certain behaviors in various fields including environmental policy (Andersen & Sprenger, 2000; Barde & Smith, 1997; Baumol & Oates, 1988; Kahn, 1995; all cited in ThOgersen, 2003), household surveys (Singer, 2002) and education policy (Fryer, 2011). On the other side, penalties have been used to reduce free-riding (Feldman, Papadimitriou, Chuang, & Stoica, 2006), and crimes (Akerlof & Dickens, 1982). There is much evidence that supports the basic premise of economics that incentives are effective (Gibbons, 1997; Prendergast, 1999; Lazear, 2000; all cited in Benabou & Tirole, 2004). However, a large body of literature in psychology has shown that explicit incentives lead to decreased motivation and reduced performance in the long run (Deci & Ryan, 1985; as cited in Benabou & Tirole, 2004). Titmuss (1970, as cited in Benabou & Tirole, 2004) was the first who claimed that people might adopt a ‘market mentality’ when they are exposed to explicit economic incentives. He found that paying blood donors for donating blood could actually reduce supply. In the beginning there was little hard evidence that social preferences affected individual behavior, but empirical and theoretical advances over the past decades provide the basis for more support. For example, Gneezy and Rustichini (2000a) found that introducing a monetary fine for late-coming parents in day-care centers led to a significant increase in late-coming. There was no reduction in late-coming after the fine was removed. Also Fryer (2011) didn’t find evidence that providing financial incentives to teachers to increase student performance had any effect. Partly because of these findings, terms as trust, reciprocity, gift exchange and fairness have appeared in the empirical study and modeling of principal-agent relationships (Bowles & Polania-Reyes, 2012). This highlights the importance of the influence that social preferences have on incentives. Based on the contradictions mentioned above I conclude that a more thorough analysis is needed in order to understand the influence of incentives on behavior. I’ll focus on the interplay between incentives and social preferences and how this affects behavior. In this paper I will review several mechanisms that can explain how incentives can be less effective than economic theories predict and how they can even have counterproductive effects. Furthermore I will indicate the implications of the (non-)effectiveness of incentives for economic policy. Overview of past research According to the definition of Bowles and Polania-Reyes (2012), social preferences refer to â€Å"motives such as altruism, reciprocity, intrinsic pleasure in helping others, inequity aversion, ethical commitments and other motives that induce people to help others more than would an own-material-payoff maximizing individual† (p. 4). Fehr and Fischbacher (2002) have indicated the most important types of preferences that have been uncovered by the literature. I will shortly review them below. The first important type of social preference is the preference for reciprocal fairness or reciprocity. An individual is reciprocal when he responds kindly to actions that are perceived as kind, and when he responds hostile to actions that are perceived as hostile. Whether some action is perceived as hostile of kind depends on the unfairness or fairness of the intention and on the consequences that are associated with the action. A second social preference type is inequity aversion. According to Fehr and Schmidt (1999; as cited in Fehr & Fischbacher, 2002) â€Å"inequity averse persons want to achieve an equitable distribution of material resources† (p. C3). Inequity averse persons show altruistic behavior if the other persons’ payoffs are below an equitable level. However, if the other persons’ payoffs are exceeding the equitable level an inequity averse person want to decrease the other persons’ payoffs. There are a lot of similarities in the behavior of reciprocal and inequity averse individuals, since both concepts depend in some way on the perception of fairness. Pure altruism is the third type of social preference, which is very different from the former two. Altruism can be seen as an unconditional form of kindness (Fehr & Fischbacher, 2002), as an altruistic person would never take an action that decreases another person’s payoff. The problem with pure altruism is that it cannot explain conditional cooperation, that is, people want to increase their voluntary cooperation in response to cooperation of others. The last social preference type that Fehr and Fischbacher (2002) mentioned is envious or spiteful preferences. An envious or spiteful person always values the payoff of other agents negatively. Therefore the envious person is willing to decrease the other agent’s payoff even if it brings along a personal cost to himself. This happens irrespective of fair or unfair behavior of the other agent and irrespective of the pay-off distribution (Fehr & Fischbacher, 2002). However, spitefulness can’t explain why it is that the same individuals sometimes are willing to help others at a personal cost, while sometimes they harm other people. Over the past decades, many studies have confirmed that a significant fraction of individuals engage in reciprocal or altruistic behaviors (Buraschi & Cornelli, 2002; as cited in Benabou & Tirole, 2004; Fehr & Gachter, 2000). Thus, many individuals do not only care about the material resources allocated to them, but also care about material resources allocated to other relevant agents. To give an overview of the incentive effects on preferences, two distinctions are made: the nature and the causes of incentives (Bowles & Polania-Reyes, 2012). Concerning the nature of incentives, people often respond to the mere presence of incentives, rather than to their extent (Gneezy, 2003; as cited in Bowles & Polania-Reyes, 2012). However, the extent of an incentive may also play a role. Therefore the effects of incentives on social preferences can be either categorical or marginal or a combination of the two. Bowles and Polania-Reyes (2012) also make a distinction between 2 causes of incentive effects on preferences. First, incentives can affect the environment in which preferences are learned. When this happens, the preferences are referred to as endogenous preferences. Second, the extent or presence of incentives affect the behavioral salience of an individual’s social preferences. When incentives constitute different states, we refer to social preferences as state-dependent preferences. There are three mechanisms that make social preferences state-dependent. First, by implementing an incentive, the principal discloses information about his intentions, about his beliefs about the target of the incentives and about the targeted behavior. This information might affect the agent’s social preferences which in turn affect the agent’s behavior. Second, incentives provide situational cues for appropriate behavior. Finally, incentives may lead to a crowding out of intrinsic motivations. The crowding-out effect is based on the intuition that the presence of punishments or rewards spoils the reputational value of good deeds. This creates doubt within the individual about the extent to which he performed because of the incentives rather than for himself. This phenomenon is also referred to as the ‘overjustification effect’ (Lepper, Greene, & Nisbett, 1973; as cited in Benabou & Tirole, 2004). In the next part of this paper I’ll give experimental evidence for both endogenous preferences and for all 3 mechanisms that make preferences incentive-state-dependent. Furthermore, I’ll give examples of experiments where crowding in has been found and explain the underlying mechanisms. 1. Endogenous preferences: incentives alter how new preferences are learned Preferences are endogenous if someone’s experiences lead to durable changes in motivations and eventually result in a change in behavior in certain situations (Bowles, 2008). In most cases, experiments have a few hours duration and therefore it’s unlikely to uncover the mechanisms that are involved in the process of durable change of preferences. Although it’s hard to explore the causal mechanisms at work, there exist some experiments that do show a durable learning effect (Irlenbausch & Sliwka, 2005; Falkinger, Fehr, Gachter, & Winter-Ebmer, 2000; all cited in Bowles, 2008). Gneezy and Rustichini (2000a), for example, examined if the introduction of a monetary fine for late-coming parents in day-care centers would lead to reduction of late-coming. However, the amount of late-coming parents didn’t decrease, but increased significantly. Thus incentives led to more self-interested behavior. More importantly, after the fine was removed no reduction in late-coming parents was shown, meaning that there was some durable learning effect going on. 2. State-dependent preferences: incentives provide information about the principal When an incentive is imposed on an agent, he may infer information about the principal who designed the incentive. He may, for example, infer information about the principal’s beliefs regarding the agent, and about the nature of the task that has to be done (Fehr & Rockenbach, 2003). This information can lead to a negative response to fines that are imposed by principals. Fehr and Rockenbach (2003) designed a sequentially played social dilemma experiment and examined how sanctions intended to prevent cheating affect human altruism. Participants in the role of ‘investor’ could transfer a certain amount of money to another player, the ‘trustee’. The experimenter tripled this amount. After tripling the money, the trustee was given the opportunity to back-transfer some of this money to the investor. The investor could indicate a desired level of the back-transfer before he transferred the money to the trustee. In the incentive-condition the investor even had the option to impose a fine if the trustee would send a back-transfer that was less than the desired amount. Instead of imposing a fine the investor could also choose to decline the use of the fine. The decision of imposing or declining the fine was known to the trustee. In the trust-condition the investor could not make use of incentives. Fehr and Rockenbach (2003) found that generous initial transfers by investors were reciprocated with greater back-transfers by trustees. However, the use of the fine reduced the return transfers, while renouncing the fine in the incentive-condition increased back-transfers. This means that sanctions revealing selfish or greedy intentions destroy altruistic cooperation almost completely (Fehr & Rockenbach, 2003). In another experiment by Fehr and Schmidt (2007), principals could choose between offering a bonus contract or a combination contract (which was a combination of the bonus contract with a fine) to the employee. What they found was that agents perceive that principals who are less fair are more likely to choose a combined contract and are less likely to pay the announced bonus. Furthermore the effect of effort on the bonus paid is twice as large in the pure bonus condition compared to the combined contract condition. The positive response to the principal’s renunciation of the fine option can be seen as a categorical effect. The threat of a fine led to diminishment of the trustee’s reciprocity. 3. State-dependent preferences: incentives may suggest permissible behavior The experiments that will be described here, differ from the experiments mentioned above in the way that here incentives are implemented exogenously by the experimenter. This means that incentives do not provide any information about the beliefs or intentions of other experimental subjects. In a lot of situations people look for clues of appropriate behavior. These are often provided by incentives. These framing effects have been investigated in many studies. Hoffman, McCabe, Shachat and Smith (1994; as cited in Bowles & Polania-Reyes, 2012) found that by making a game sound more competitive after relabeling it, generosity and fair-minded behavior in the participants were diminished. In some other studies (Ellingsen, Johannesson, Munkhammar, & Mollerstrom, 2008; as cited in Bowles & Polania-Reyes, 2012) the framing effect even appeared to have changed subjects’ beliefs about the actions of others. Framing effects can also be induced in other ways than simply renaming the experiment. Providing an incentive may already provide a powerful frame for the decision maker. In an experiment of Schotter, Weiss and Zapater (1996) subjects played an Ultimatum Game experiment in which player 1 is given an endowment and asked to propose a part of this endowment to player 2. Player 2 can either accept or reject this division. If he accepts, the proposed division is implemented. However, if he rejects both players receive nothing. Schotter et al (1996) found that if a market-like competition was included in the game, that is, subjects with lower earnings would be excluded from the second round in the game, player 1 proposed less generous divisions to player 2. Furthermore, lower offers were accepted by player 2. The authors interpreted these results as that implementing market-like competition â€Å"offers justifications for actions that in isolation would be unjustifiable† (p. 38). Thus, providing incentives in the form of a competition can lead to moral disengagement. The framing effects of incentives can occur in cases of government-imposed incentives as well. An example comes from an experiment from Cardenas, Stranlund and Willis (2000) where they studied the effects of external regulatory control of environmental quality. Participants were asked to choose how much time they would spend collecting firewood from a forest, while being aware that this activity has a negative effect on local water quality. Two treatments were considered to examine whether external control may crowd out group-oriented behavior. All subjects played eight initial rounds of the game without any treatment, that is, without being able to communicate with each other and without external regulation. After the initial rounds, one subset of groups played additional rounds in which they were able to communicate. The other subset of groups was confronted with a government-imposed regulation. The regulation also involved the possibility of imposing a fine to subjects that would withdraw too much of the firewood. Although standard economic theory predicted that the regulation would increase group-oriented behavior, this wasn’t the case. When subjects were able to communicate they made way more efficient decisions. However, regulatory external control caused subjects to make decisions that were closer to their self-interest. This means that the fine, although it was insufficient to enforce the social optimum, extinguished the subjects’ ethical aptitudes. 4. State-dependent preferences: incentives may compromise intrinsic motives and self-determination A third reason why social preferences may be state dependent is because providing incentives may lead to motivational crowding out. As Bowles (2008) put it: â€Å"where people derive pleasure from an action per se in the absence of other rewards, the introduction of explicit incentives may ‘overjustify’ the activity and reduce the individual’s sense of autonomy† (p. 607). According to Deci (1975; as cited in Bowles, 2008) the underlying psychological mechanism appears to be a desire for â€Å"feelings of competence and self-determination that are associated with intrinsically motivated behavior† (p. 1607). There is a large body of literature on the psychology of intrinsic motivations going back to the early work of Festinger (1957; as cited in ThOgersen, 2003) and his cognitive dissonance theory. In the past decades a lot of experiments have been done to test the crowding out of intrinsic motivation. One of these studies comes from Gneezy & Rustichini (2000b) who tested the effects of monetary incentives on student performance. 180 students were asked to answer 50 questions of an IQ test. They were all paid 60 NIS (New Israeli Shekel) for their participation in the experiment. The students were divided into 4 different groups, which were all corresponding to 4 different treatments. The students in the first treatment group were only asked to answer as many questions as possible. The students in the second group got an extra payment of 10 cents of a NIS per question that they answered correctly. Subjects in the third group were promised 1 NIS, and subjects in the fourth group 3 NIS per question that they answered correctly. The average number of questions correctly was approximately 28 in the first group and declined to 23 in the second group. Furthermore, the number increased to 34 in both the third and the fourth group. The differences in performance were significant. In a second experiment Gneezy & Rustichini (2000b) tested the effect of incentives on volunteer work performed by high school children. 180 children were divided into three groups. The subjects in the first group constituted the control group and they were only given a speech about the importance of volunteer work. The second group was given a speech as well, but was also promised to receive 1 per cent of the total amount of donations collected. The third group was promised 10 per cent of the amount collected. The average amount collected was highest in the first group and lowest in the second group. The average amount that was collected by the third group was higher than that of the second group but not as high of the amount that was collected in the first group. Also these results were significant. It appears to indicate that the effect of incentives can be detrimental, at least for small amounts. In another experiment, Falk and Kosfeld (2006; as cited in Bowles 2008) tested the idea that control aversion based on the self-determination motive is the reason that incentives reduce performance. They used a principal-agent game where agents could choose a level of production that was beneficial for the principal, but costly for themselves. If the agent chose to produce nothing, he would get a maximal pay-off. Before the agent’s decision the principal could decide to leave the choice f production level completely to the agent or to impose a certain lower bound on the agent’s production level. The experimenter varied the bounds across the treatments and the principal could only choose to impose it or not. Results showed that when the principal imposed the bound, the agents chose a lower production level than when the principal didn’t impose a bound. The ‘untrusting’ principals earned half of the profits of those who did trust the agents and thus didn’t impose a bound. In post-surveys, the agents indicated that imposing the lower bound was perceived as a signal of distrust. The results of this experiment suggest that the desire for self-determination and control aversion are not the only effects of imposing the bound. Imposing this minimum was informative for the agents about what the principals’ beliefs were regarding the agents: the principals who imposed the bounds had lower expectations of the agents. Thus, the results in the experiment of Falk and Kosfeld (2006; as cited in Bowles 2008) seem to be the result of both negative information about the principal (or incentive designer) as well as the result of self-determination. 5. Crowding in Although a lot of experiments show that providing incentives has a negative effect on social preferences, there is also some evidence that crowding in can occur, that is, social preferences and incentives enhance the effect on each other. This might happen when an incentive provides good news about the principal’s type or intentions, for example when he offers the agent a reward rather than a fine. It is also seen in experiments where the incentive designers are peers in a public goods game who pay to punish free riders in order to sustain cooperative behavior (Bowles & Polania-Reyes, 2012). The phenomenon of crowding in is interesting since it indicates how policies could be implemented optimally and how incentives and social preferences could become complements rather than substitutes (Bowles & Polania-Reyes, 2012). Besides that, it appears that crowding in happens often in Public Goods games and Common Pool Resources games, which display the same characteristics as public policy settings. Below I’ll give an example of an experiment in which crowding in was found. Fehr and Gachter (2000) conducted a public good experiment with and without the opportunity to punish. In the no-punishment treatment the dominant strategy is complete free-riding. In the punishment treatment free-riders could be punished by their altruistic peers, since it was costly for them to punish. Therefore, if there were only selfish individuals, as assumed in economic theory, there wouldn’t be a difference between the two treatments. However, in the no-punishment treatment the contributions of the players were substantially lower than in the punishment treatment. This suggests that powerful motives drive the punishments of free-riders. Furthermore there was evidence that the more free-riders deviated from cooperation, the more they were being punished. There are several mechanisms that can explain the effect of crowding in. In the first place when a peer imposes a fine on a free-rider, this may activate a feeling of shame. Barr (2001; as cited in Bowles & Polania-Reyes, 2012) found that just a verbal message of disapproval already can have a positive effect on the free riders’ contributions. A second mechanism that appears to be at work it that nobody wants to be the cooperator while all others are defecting. Shinada and Yamagishi (2007, as cited in Bowles & Polania-Reyes, 2012) found that students cooperated more in a public goods experiment when they were assured that defecting free-riders would be punished. They just didn’t want to be exploited by defectors. A third mechanism underlying crowding in was consistent with the findings of an experiment by Vertova and Galbiati (2010, as cited in Bowles & Polania-Reyes, 2012). They found that when a stated obligation was introduced, this produced a larger effect when it was accompanied with a small monetary incentive, rather than with a big incentive or than when no incentives were offered. The authors interpreted this phenomenon as that the salience of the stated obligation is enhanced by large explicit incentives. The latter phenomenon was also found in Ireland, where a small tax was imposed on plastic grocery bags (Rosenthal, 2008; as cited in Bowles & Polania-Reyes, 2012). After two weeks there was a 94% decline in the use of these bags. This result can be explained by the fact that the introduction of the tax was preceded by a large publicity campaign. Thus, the incentive was implemented jointly with a message of social obligation and it seems that it served as a reminder of the importance of one’s civic duty. Implications for policy Many policies are based on the self-interest hypothesis that predicts that all individuals are self-regarding. However, as we have seen social preferences play an important role as well when it comes down to behavior. This would mean that a lot of current policies are non-optimal. Therefore a big challenge is facing the mechanism designer: how to design optimal fines, taxes or subsidies when the individual’s responses depend on his preferences which in turn are determined by the incentive imposed? In most experiments the effects of incentives were studies and afterwards the mechanisms were identified that could explain the results. However, one of the problems that the designer is facing is that he must determine beforehand how incentives will affect behavior. Based on the experiments that have been done, several guidelines can be drawn. The first is that when crowding out is found, social preferences and incentives are substitutes. This means that a negative effect of incentives is less likely to be found when the social preferences are minimal. In contrast, when social preferences are prevalent among a society, it may be more convenient to reduce the use of incentives. Also, policies that are implemented in order to enhance social preferences will be more effective when incentives are little used. The second stems from Titmuss’s claim that if the crowding out effect is so strong that the incentive has an opposite effect than intended, incentives should be used less. However, in many cases the effectiveness of incentives is not reversed, but blunted and then the implications for the optimal use of incentive isn’t that obvious (Bowles & Hwang, 2008). How Bowles & Hwang (2008) state it: â€Å"the reduced effectiveness of the incentive associated with crowding out would entail a larger incentive for a planner designing a subsidy to ensure compliance with a quantitative target† (p. 4). Present evidence is insufficient in providing enough guidelines to the policy maker who wants to know ex ante what the effects are of the incentives that he considers to implement (Bowles & Polania-Reyes, 2012). What we do know is that the same incentives imposed by individuals who have no personal benefit but only want to promote pro-social behavior (as in the experiment of Fehr & Gachter, 2000) are more likely to increase contributions than when imposed by an untrusting principal (Fehr & Rockenbach, 2003). Furthermore it seems to be important to let the agent understand that the desired change in behavior would be socially beneficial rather than that the incentive is perceived as a threat to her autonomy or reflecting badly on the designer’s intentions (Bowles & Polania-Reyes, 2012). Conclusion The self-interest hypothesis assumes that individuals are only motivated by their own material self-interest. This assumption is used in the design of many policies. However, in the past decades a lot of experiments have shown that other-regarding social preferences rather than self-regarding preferences play a role in behavior. We have seen that some mechanisms can induce pro-socially oriented individuals to behave as they are selfish. On the other hand, there are also examples of experiments in which mechanisms induce self-interested individuals to behave at a more pro-social level. Thus, incentives can lead to both crowding out and crowding in phenomena. Whereas negative information about the principal and the over-justification effect may lead to crowding out of intrinsic motivation to contribute to a good, altruistic punishment by peers who do not benefit personally is more likely to increase contributions. Furthermore it seems important to make individuals aware of their civic duty, as was shown in Ireland where a small tax was imposed on plastic bags. Regarding to public policy, we have seen that small differences in institutional design can lead to many different outcomes. This imposes a big challenge on the policy designer who has to know ex ante what the effects of the incentive that he is considering to implement will be. When social preferences are not present, incentives may have a positive effect, predicted by economic theory. However, in areas where social preferences do play a role, the use of monetary incentives needs to be reconsidered.

The Sexual Practices in the Youths

The Sexual Practices in the Youths Abstract There has been a rise in sexual awareness among the teenagers. The statistical comparison of the current and past generations sharply differs. The mass media is largely to blame for the sexual practices in the youths.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on The Sexual Practices in the Youths specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Introduction Are todays teens becoming more sexually active and aware at a younger age than previous generations? Currently, teenagers have more information on sexuality while some have sexual experiences at a tender age. Parents and the media have to combine efforts to fight the vice. Literature review Chapman, J. (2000). Adolescent sex and mass media: a developmental approach. Miami: Herald. According to Chapman, the media is to be blame for the sharp rise in adolescent sex. To solve the problem, Chapman recommends the establishment of a body to monitor the contribution of media on sex uality. Brown, D. (2002). Mass media influences on sexuality. New York: Harper Row. Brown also blames the media as the major source of moral decadence. He calls for the restrictions of teenagers from accessing obscene materials from the media. Ponton, L. (2000). The Sex Lives of Teenagers. New York: Dutton.Advertising Looking for research paper on social sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Ponton is concerned about the sharp rise in teen pregnancies and sexually transmitted diseases. Therefore, she recommends an explicit study to solve the problem. Analysis The first two authors of the above books point a blame finger at the media and the parents while the third author recommends for clear study to establish the origin of the problem. Methodology Through epidemiological approach, a retrospective study of teenagers (13-18 years). There will be an assessment of media and lifestyle comparing the behavior in the a ge groups. Results will determine the conclusion and recommendations. Hypothesis and Conclusion Sex is rampant among the teenagers. I believe my research will establish the cause of sexual exposure in teenagers and the subsequent ways to solve the problem. References Brown, D. (2002). Mass media influences on sexuality. New York: Harper Row. Chapman, J. (2000). Adolescent sex and mass media: a developmental approach. Miami: Herald. Ponton, L. (2000). The Sex Lives of Teenagers. New York: DuttonAdvertising We will write a custom research paper sample on The Sexual Practices in the Youths specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More

Top 15 Ways to Use Social Media to Get a Job

Top 15 Ways to Use Social Media to Get a Job On September 15, I had the privilege of participating in a Twitter chat on using social media to get a job. Participants included many journalism professors who had spot-on advice for students and other job seekers, and who confirmed some best practices for using Twitter and LinkedIn to find a job. One professor, Samra Bufkins MJ, APR (@Samjb) stated that she requires all her students to have a LinkedIn profile – and she grades it! Not only that, but she requires them to create a profile both at the beginning of the semester and at the end, hammering in the importance of keeping your LinkedIn profile fresh and up-to-date! Here are the top 10 pieces of advice I gathered from the chat: Recruiters and employers are looking for you on LinkedIn. Use keywords that will help you appear in searches, and complete the Skills section which is searched by recruiters (@BrendaBernstein)! Always post a professional picture of yourself on LinkedIn (no cats or significant others – reserve those for Facebook!). Build and expand your LinkedIn network in smart ways, choosing the people you want to connect with and whose connections you would want to connect with (@BrendaBernstein). Students can start by reaching out to current and former professors and influentials they meet in their communities (@DarrinDevault). Don’t be afraid to ask for introductions from mutual connections or to interact with people by asking questions and sending compliments (@Samjb, @kingisafink). Follow organizations and companies that interest you on Twitter and LinkedIn, and connect with key people at companies you want to work for. Use the Find Alumni feature on LinkedIn (@jmeucci). Alumni can help you get in front of people who might otherwise pass you over (@Samjb). If you blog, write for student media, or do freelance work, post links to your work on LinkedIn (@Samjb). Read this article on How to Use Twitter to Find a Job. If you get somebody’s business card at a conference, connect with them using a personal connect request within 24 hours (@Samjb). (This tweet was hailed as bordering on â€Å"Biblical advice† by Jason Meucci (@jmeucci)). Supporting #5, always make LinkedIn connection requests from your computer, not from your phone, and do it from the person’s actual full profile, not from a list (@BrendaBernstein). That way you can personalize your request. Some professors will not accept any invitations that are not personalized (@DarrinDevault). Don’t be shy about displaying your accomplishments (@kingisafink). When engaging in ALL social media, including Facebook, Instagram, Snapchat, etc., be aware that people could be watching. Be careful what you post! Teach others how to use social media and you will become better at it yourself (@uw_sjmc). And the more you use it, the better you’ll get! If you are a student, check out LinkedIn’s student guide to using LinkedIn. Congratulate people in your network on their new jobs, awards, etc. And wish them a happy birthday! You can find out about these events from your Connections tab on LinkedIn. Turn real life connections into social media connections, and vice versa (@kingisafink). The online world does not exist in a vacuum! The above 15 tips speak for themselves. Whether you are a student or seasoned professional, start putting them into practice now! And of course, my book, How to Write a KILLER LinkedIn Profile, soon to be released in print, covers more LinkedIn job search tips than could ever be addressed in an hour-long chat session. If you are not on my e-list and haven’t gotten your free excerpt yet, please click here to join!

The reason why I selected these three compounds Essays

The reason why I selected these three compounds Essays The reason why I selected these three compounds Essay The reason why I selected these three compounds Essay The reason why I selected these three compounds which are azo dyes, aspirin and soap is because: In the aspect of chemistry, they all have different functional groups and molecular shapes associated with different functions. They are all demanded in the modern world commercially. They are easy and an affordable way of making in the college lab with minor hazards. The aims of this unit is to: A clear awareness of a variety of different functional groups and their reactions. A brief understanding of the reaction mechanism involved in each reaction as well as the shape importance of the molecule relating to its use. ; An in depth insight of the organic synthesis as well as the gradual steps involved in making the product, including the issue of equilibrium reactions and predicted yield. ; Familiarize myself with the different apparatus as well as materials used in the organic synthesis, and their limitations with regardless of yield. ; Show good comprehensive knowledge of the commercial importance of organic compounds and the economic imperatives involved in producing such compounds. AZO DYES 1) Introduction There are different types of dyes. A dye is used to impart color to materials of which it becomes the integral part. They give bright, high intensity colors that can even supply a complete rainbow of colors. Azo dyes are highly important commercially as they are used in the textile industry as acid dyes for wool and their affinity for cotton is increased by the number of auxochromes or azo groups. Auxochromes are groups in a dye molecule that influences the color due to the chromophore. They are groups, such as -OH and -NH2, containing lone pairs of electrons that can be delocalized along with the delocalized electron An azo group is a -N=N- group that is a chromophore (A chemical group capable of selective light absorption resulting in the coloration of certain organic compounds.) Azo dyes are also used as pigments and in color photography. In the UK, companies like James Robinsons Limited make about thirty thousand tones of azo dyes each year. 2) Commercial And Laboratory Synthesis The synthesis of azo dyes involves the reaction of diazotation and coupling and at the end of the reaction, separation of the azo dye from the mixture that is going to be produced. 1) Diazotisation This is the reaction in which produces diazonium salt as well as a -N diazonium ion. This is very unstable when it exceeds temperatures above 10à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C. Otherwise the -N decomposes into nitrogen gas. 2) Coupling This is the electrophilic substitution on the phenol which produces an energetically stable azo dye. The azo group is -N=N- First step: Diazotisation reaction HNO + HCL + 2H O Phenylamine + nitrous acid + hydrochloric acid phenyldiazonium chloride + water (Diazonium salt) The reaction takes place under 10à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C to prevent the NN, the N2 diazonium ion decomposing into N2 gas. This suggests that the delocalization of the diazonium ion bond electrons over the benzene ring is only able to stabilize the diazonium salt at cold temperatures. At higher temperatures above 10à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C, there is too much so therefore the diazonium ion gives way to nitrogen gas. Below shows the reaction mechanism of for the formation of diazonium salt. Now that there is a N2+ diazonium ion, there is now a suitable electrophile to attack a phenol ring. Second Step: Coupling This is where phenol attacks benzene at the 4th position of the ring. The equation for this Is: Phenyldiazonium ion + phenol 4-hydroxyphenylazobenzene + hydrogen ion Azo dyes are very stabilized which is a result of broad delocalization of the electrons through the -N=N azo group (nitrogen double bond). Delocalisation is simply increased stability 3) Relationship Structure/ Function Of Azo dyes The structure of an azo dye is very closely linked to its function as a dye, in terms of color and fastness. Auxochromes can modify the color of a chromophore. The azo functional group itself is also important as this is what part of the light the spectrum absorbs. In the aspect of the fastness, azo dyes are very stable as a result of their chemical structure and they can also be made more color fast by alkylation of phenolic groups ASPIRIN 1) Introduction Aspirin is one of the commonly used pain relief tablets on the world. It is an analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic inhibitor of platelet aggregation. Aspirin inhibits the enzyme that converts fatty acids in cell membranes into prostaglandin precursors known as endoperoxides. These endoperoxides can be converted into various prostaglandins, including those that produce pain, fever, and inflammation. Generally, one or two 5-grain doses of aspirin can block the prostaglandin formation. The main side effect of aspirin is the tendency of irritation of the stomach lining which causes small amounts of blood loss. In order to prevent this, aspirin is thus buffered and combined with other medicines to produce some desired effect of reducing blood loss. 2) Commercial Synthesis The starting raw materials of the commercial aspirin reaction are: Phenol C6 H3 OH ( l ) Sodium Hydroxide NaOH (aq) Carbon dioxide CO2 ( g ) Acetic Anhydride CH3COOCOCH3 ( l ) Acid H+ (aq) Below are four different stages in which aspirin is made: The next step of this reaction is classified as an esterification reaction. Esterification is simply where an alcohol (the -OH group from salicylic acid) reacts with an acid (acetic anhydride) to form an ester acetylsalicylic acid (ASA). The rates of the esterification reaction are increased by the addition of small quantities of mineral acids such as phosphoric acid (a catalyst) and some heat. http://aspirin-foundation.com/reaction.htm C9H8O4 is the molecular formula for aspirin and this tells you how many atoms are in each molecule of acetylsalicylic acid. So there are 9 C (carbon) atoms, 8 H (hydrogen) atoms, and 4O (oxygen) atoms. Acetylsalicylic acid has two functional groups, the carboxylic acid group COOH and the MeCOOR ester group-(R is used as an abbreviation for an unspecified aliphatic or aromatic chain). The Reaction Mechanism The following diagram shows the reaction mechanism of the aspirin reaction. Note: The sign means it is an equilibrium reaction (a state of balance between two opposing elements). http://tooldoc.wncc.neveda.edu/aspirin.htm There are H+ ions because they have been catalyzed by a mineral acid The H+ (proton) from the acid attacks the carboxyl oxygen in the C=O. This therefore pushes two of the oxygen electrons in one of the bonds down that is the electrons are delocalized and spread out between the two oxygen atoms. In proximity of these electrons, the O-H bond with the oxygen in the alcohol breaks and this then rearranges the electrons to form a temporary bond between the two reactants (oxygen and alcohol). The alcoholic oxygen atom has now got a temporary positive charge as it now has three bonds to it in the intermediate at step 2 of the reaction mechanism. The oxygen loses its H+ which is then attracted to one of the lone pairs on the other oxygen to make it miserable and positively charged with three bonds. The H-O-H sort of water molecule in step 3 detaches itself to form a delocalized electron system. This delocalized electron system gives the molecule adequate stability when the H leaves forming an H+ ion. This H+ ion (proton) added in the step 1 is the original acid catalyst used at the beginning of the reaction. A catalyst is basically substance that increases or decreases the rate of chemical reaction between the other chemical species without being consumed up in the process. Laboratory Synthesis The starting materials of the laboratory synthesis of aspirin are salicylic acid and acetic anhydride both of which are easily available and inexpensive. Acetic anhydride reacts with the phenolic hydroxyl group of the salicylic acid to produce acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin) and acetic acid. Acetylsalicylic acid has two functional groups, the carboxylic group COOH and the MeCOOR ester group-(R is used as an abbreviation for an unspecified aliphatic or aromatic chain). The rates of esterification are increased by the addition of small quantities mineral acids such as phosphoric acid (a catalyst) and some heat. Below is an equation that shows this: 3) Relationship structure/function Understanding the similarities between the two different molecules (aspirin and paracetamol) which achieve similar effects can be a profitable way of having a clear distinction of the molecules. Below are two pictures showing the structure of aspirin compared to paracetamol: Aspirin Paracetamol The structure of aspirin is related to its shape, although the presence of the functional group is also important. As seen above, all two have a six membered ring structure, which tends to avoid the polar environment of water and a comparatively small appended group of atoms and are able to bond to part of their receptor molecule. The similarity in the structure of these molecules is clearly obvious and from their similar pain killing actions so therefore, we can assume that they both can fit into similar active sites even before the details of their active sites have actually been determined. SOAP 1) Introduction The term soap is a class name for the sodium and potassium salts of stearic acid, C17H35 COOH, and other fatty acids. Soaps are and have been there for centuries, made by the addition of hot concentrated aqueous sodium hydroxide solutions to fats such as glyceryl stearate. In the world every year, about 500,000,000 soaps are produced. Generally, soaps are used for bathing and washing clothes. It works by lowering the surface tension of water, by softening grease, and by absorbing dirt into the foam. Soaps come in three different states: which are the powder, liquid and bar forms. Some liquid soaps are very thick as well as sticky so they are called gels. The first step in manufacturing all the three forms of soap is the right selection of the raw materials as well as considering that if they can react accordingly with other ingredients and are also safe for humans if accidentally consumed. Also environmental safety is considered as precaution. 2) Synthesis In laboratory synthesis, the sodium and potassium salts of fatty acids, from which soaps are prepared, consist essentially of the glycerol esters of these acids. In soap manufacture or commercial synthesis, the oil or fat is heated with dilute aqueous sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide in large vats. When hydrolysis is complete, the soap is salted out which is then treated with different fragrances . Transparent soap is manufactured from decolorized fats and liquid green soaps from potassium hydroxide. Commercial synthesis Soap involves a two step synthesis: First Step: Esterification This is the process whereby an alcohol is reacted (functional group -OH) and a long chain of carboxylic acid (functional group -COOH) to make an ester (functional group -C-O-O-C-). The long chain carboxylic acid is issued from fats and oils which is called a fatty acid. For soap, the alcohol is glycerol (propane-1,2,3-triol) and the carboxylic acid used to make soap is oleic acid (octadeca-cis-enoic acid) as well as stearic acid (octadecanoic acid). Oleic acid is best derived from olive oil or virgin olive oil containing up to 5g of oleic acid per 100g. Stearic acid is best derived from animal fats. Glycerol is a molecule with three -OH groups, therefore three molecules of carboxylic acid can couple to glycerol to make an ester. The ester will therefore be a backbone of glycerol with three side chains in which each is a potentially different fatty acid. Below is a picture of 1 molecule of glycerol + 3 molecules of a carboxylic acid = a triglyceride: There are therefore 3 ester linkages in a triglyceride. An ester linkage links an alcohol and a carboxylic acid. Below is a picture that shows this: Note that the R group is a general organic group but what is much more interested in is the functional group that makes the type of chemical needed. Example, below is diagram of CH3COOH (ethanoic acid) and CH3CH2OH ethanol which forms an ester of CH3COOCH2 CH3 + H2O A water molecule is released for every ester linkage formed. Therefore esterification is also a hydration process. Because there is a tri-glyceride and three ester linkages in the making of soap, this shows that three water molecules will be released in the reaction. The Reaction Mechanism In this reaction, a mineral acid is needed to act as a catalyst for the reaction to lower its activation energy. This acid is combined with the carboxylic acid and helps the alcohol react with it. The acid is released unchanged at the end of the reaction. Heat is also applied in this reaction process. The reaction mechanism is called The mechanism of Fischer The following pictures below shows some of the fatty acids used to make soap: Below is a picture of triglycerides of stearic acid which have three chains of fatty acids for each glycerol molecule. Before the reaction of the carboxylic groups and fatty acids, they had a -COOH group which reacted with the -OH on the alcohol. The -COOH loosed its OH and the -OH loosed its H. OH+H=H2O. The three molecules of H2O are released to form the ester as seen in the picture above. Below is another fat and another diagram of a triglyceride that has three tails. Each tails forms a different fatty acid. http://members.aol.com/jitsm/sas/Lowry_Paper/triglyceride3.gif Second Step: Hydrolysis = Saponification A hydrolysis reaction is the decomposition of a chemical compound that is reacted with water or the -OH group which breaks up a molecule. In this reaction step, glycerol is removed from the ester whiles at the same time, each of the fatty acids are turned into a sodium or potassium salt. The ester is heated under reflux with NAOH(aq) (sodium hydroxide) (or KOH (aq) for potassium hydroxide). The equation below shows the saponification of a triglyceride of stearic acid soap= sodium stearate. In the formula of the salt above, instead of : CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2COO-NA There is CH3(CH2)16COO-Na+ Third Step: Precipitation = Salting Out In this step, surplus amounts of saturated sodium chloride solution are added to the mixture obtained above to get a precipitate of soap. 3) Relationship Structure/Function: Soap is bubbly and works because it has a hydrophilic end and a hydrophobic end. The hydrophilic end means having a strong affinity or attraction to water and the hydrophobic end means having a strong aversion for water. Soap is a surface active material as this chemical agent is capable of quick reaction activity. THE MAKING OF SOAP IN COLLEGE LABORATORY: PRACTICAL WRITE-UP Before the experiment starts, the will be some safety precautions considered such as: the wearing of splash proof chemical goggles in case hot oil splashes over and catches fire and also including lab coats worn to prevent any corrosive substances falling on clothes of students in the laboratory. Materials Needed First Step Synthesis Separation After First Step Second Step Of Synthesis Collection Of Final Product Glycerol Oleic acid Concentrated sulphuric acid in fume cupboard (corrosive) Anti-bumping granules Measuring cylinder (x2 Pear-shaped flask Reflux condenser Bunsen burner Beaker Separating funnel Conical flask Digital weighing scale Aqueous sodium hydroxide conc. 3M (caustic) Measuring cylinder Bunsen Burner Saturated aqueous sodium chloride Digital weighing scale Filter funnel Filter paper Beaker Labels First Step Of Synthesis: Esterification 1mol glycerol + 3mol oleic acid 1mol glycerol trioleate + 3 mol water The reflux apparatus was set up as seen above in the synthesis of soap (Hydrolysis) and the water was kept in mind to be kept on . Now with the measuring cylinder, 10.0cm3 of oleic acid was measured and carefully poured it into the pear-shaped flask. After this, 5.0cm3 of glycerol was accurately measured using the additional measuring cylinder available and then also added to the pear-shaped flask. In the fume cupboard, 3-5 drops of the concentrated sulphuric acid mixture was added to the pear-shaped glass. Also a pinch of anti-bumping granules was added in the pear-shaped flask to stop any bubbles from forming and splashing the reactants everywhere. After this, the pear-shaped flask was clipped securely in the reflux apparatus for it to reflux for about half an hour as well as remembering not to overheat the mixture or let it dry out. After refluxing, two separate layers of liquid were produced. Separation Following First Step The two liquid layers was separated using the separating funnel after the esterification process. The lower layer of the two liquids were collected in a beaker and discarded off whiles the remaining top dark layer which is the ester was put in a pre-weighed conical flask which was heat resistant. Below is a table of the weighed product: Weight of conical flask (g) 89.84 grams Weight of conical flask+ ester (g) 97.16 grams Weight of ester (g) 7.32 grams Second Step Of Synthesis: Hydrolysis 1mol glycerol trioleate + 3 mol aqueous sodium hydroxide 1mol glycerol +3 mol sodium oleate Caution: The Sodium hydroxide was highly concentrated, so care was taken. Now with a measuring cylinder, 20.0cm3 of aqueous sodium hydroxide (3M concentration) was accurately measured and put into the heat resistant conical flask which had the ester in. This started to create a precipitate. The mixture was carefully heated up by the Bunsen burner to simmer it and also, with cautions of not boiling over for about ten minutes. After the tenth minute the bunsen burner was turned off and the mixture was allowed to cool down. Collection Of the Final Product (Soap) Following hydrolysis, some amounts of the soap was already precipitated but some was still in the solution. Using the saturated sodium chloride, the soap was precipitated in the solution. This was started by using 10cm3 of saturated sodium chloride, swirling the flask gently. The precipitate (soap) was allowed to settle for a few minutes and then filtered in the filter funnel using the filter paper to separate the solid and liquid was collected in a beaker. The solid soap was left in the filter to continue filtering which took quite a bit of time. The liquid collected in the beaker was discarded and a preliminary weight measurement of the soap was taken. The mixture was allowed to dry out naturally and in a few days time, the final weight of the soap was accurately taken and recorded as the final mass of soap obtained. Calculations Mass Of soap obtained (g) 7.28 grams Molar mass (g mol-1) (Sodium Oleate) 304 gram/mol-1 Number of moles of soap obtained (mol) 7.28à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½304=0.2023 Number of moles of soap theoretically obtained from stoichiometry (mol) Mol Of ester 7.32 M. mass of oleic acid 884 =8.2805à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½10-3 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 3 = 0.2024 mols Percentage Yield Mass Obtained 7.28 Theo. Mass 8.2805 =0.879à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½100= 87.9% The % yield was a bit high may be because there wee some impurities in it. Testing The Soap In testing the soap, a little portion was broken from it after calculating the percentage yields and other calculations and then was put in a test tube. Water was then put in it to see if it would react with it and produce foam which it did.

Are state tests actually beneficial to students, or do they place Essay

Are state tests actually beneficial to students, or do they place unnecessary pressure on teachers, students, and parents - Essay Example In fact they create unnecessary pressure to the three stakeholders, diluting its very essence. Firstly, the stakes of state test are too high. Secondly, the test results cannot accurately measure learning. Thirdly, teachers are molded into ‘teaching the tests’ rather than concepts. Lastly, the anxiety associated with tests impedes learning and leads to cheating and result manipulation. Therefore, this paper will discuss on why state tests are not beneficial to stakeholders in education—students, teachers and parents. To begin with, the stakes of the tests are too high and teachers are adapted into ‘teaching test’ rather than concepts. Traditionally, test scores influence how much funds a school would receive from the government. Low test scores would make the school run the risk of its operations taken over by the government; therefore, little room for independent decision making (Texas Business Leadership Council). Such pressure on state officials, parents, teachers and students create a very poor environment for learning. Additionally, Teachers plan their curriculum around tests. Additionally, teachers teach test-taking skills and how to pass exams. Consequently, teachers lose the creativity and dynamism that makes learning enjoyable (The National Center for Fair and Open Testing). Concepts and hands-on skill require a greater challenge and are more rewarding than the ability to pass a multiple-choice test. Secondly, test scores are not the accurate measure of learning. In a 2013 speech, the secretary of education, Arne Duncan opines that state assessments in various subjects often fail to capture the student’s ability of what they know and can do (Evans ). Besides, all the stakeholders in education know that there is so much more to education that the ability to sit down and answer a few multiple-choice questions. Standardized state tests do not create room for students to express themselves (Evans ). Lastly, the anxiety associated with

Closing case #2 Chap 6 Zillow Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Closing #2 Chap 6 Zillow - Case Study Example Business intelligence at Zillow allows managers to make better decisions that are beneficial to the company. In Zillow, Zestimate values allow them to use data mining features for spotting trends across property valuations hence creating new products for their customers. Through this technology, they are able to see accurate Zestimate values and allow users to find homes that are for sale and rent based on monthly payment they can afford. Through business intelligence, Zillow launched new products aimed at changing the manner in which Americans shop mortgages by allowing borrowers to use their new mortgage marketplace to get custom loan quotes from lenders without giving their details. The marketing department at Zillow can easily use data mart to release a new product by taking advantage of databases that are stored in details. Through their data warehousing systems, they can store the same information in aggregated form more suited to support decision-making process. The warehouse can then be used to compile information from internal databases and external databases through extraction, transformation, and loading during launching of new products. Accurate information is of great importance to Zillow since they need such information to make accurate choices on how they intend to run their business. Any information that is not accurate misleads the managers as they make their daily choices that can eventually lead to reduced profits in the business. All information needed by Zillow should be complete to ensure that there is no value lacking in the information provided. Incomplete information can also lead the management in making wrong decisions that can eventually bring the company down. Zillow needs information that is ever flowing at a constant speed as they are availed so that they become useful to the management. Inconsistency of information can disrupt the decision-making process that would in

Issues & Controversy with Public Policy Research Paper

Issues & Controversy with Public Policy - Research Paper Example In addition, the financial fines and penalties imposed by the US government in an attempt to persuade the uninsured people to change their status also pose serious challenges to low and middle income families. This paper will discuss the public policy issue of uninsured population in US and identify three policy initiatives that can address the issue. The term uninsured is commonly used to represent a person having no insurance coverage. According to Cropf (2008, p.323), the growing uninsured population in US was one of the primary concerns raised by the advocates of health care reform. A significant proportion of uninsured population in the United States has been a headache for the US policy makers for decades, and the introduction of the recent health care reform could not improve the situation notably. Multiple surveys indicate that the number of uninsured people has dropped due to the implementation of health changes resulting from the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA). According to a report published by the Commonwealth Fund in July 2014, an additional 9.5 million people aged 19-64 obtained access to health insurance, representing approximately 5 percent of the working-aged population. The United States Census Bureau reported that there were 48 million uninsured in the US (representing 15.4% of the populatio n) in 2012. Despite the falling rate of uninsured in US, one cannot say Obamacare (or PPACA) is a success in addressing the issue of uninsured in the country because of its higher costs. In spite of the claims of the Obamacare advocates that the new insurance coverage plans would cost less than the average cable bill or cell phone bill, a survey finds that roughly half the of the uninsured in the US say that Obamacare is too expensive. According to the Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation study released in January 2015 (as cited in Hall, 2015), 48% of the uninsured Americans are of the opinion that they remain uninsured due to the high

Inuit Education Outline Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Inuit Education Outline - Assignment Example By the 1960’s a global push was underway for â€Å"decolonization† of the education of indigenous communities, which included instruction in native languages (Patrick 255). The reasoning behind this shift was that students would be more successful in their academic pursuits when instructed in their native languages, while such instruction would provide avenues for advancement among adults in indigenous communities. At a deeper level, decolonization of education was linked to the broader political and cultural effort to â€Å"decolonize the mind† of indigenous communities, a phrase made popular through the writings of Franz Fanon. Instruction in Inuit languages would allow students to avoid the destructive colonial condition of viewing oneself and one's communities through the eyes of colonial authority and instead promote the development of a sophisticated, literate Inuit subjectivity. Now, forty years later, bilingual education and other anti-colonial educational reforms have had a chance to take on this enormous task. This paper aims to assess whether the aims of such reforms have been achieved, to note any unintended consequences of the policy and to assess the potential of future reform policy. c. Thesis: Bilingual education had limited success in achieving its original aims. While Inuit subjectivity has been strengthened in the process of policy change, cultural imperialism in education and society as a whole have not been entirely eliminated. a. Bilingual education had limited success in achieving its original aims. While Inuit subjectivity has been strengthened in the process of policy change, cultural imperialism in education and society as a whole have not been entire.

Picassos Three Musicians Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Picassos Three Musicians - Research Paper Example The essay "Picasso’s Three Musicians" gives a review on "Three Musicians", painting of Pablo Picasso. Picasso’s painting â€Å"Three Musicians† offers the viewer greater visual cues as to the intended subject than some of his other work. It was used to portray Picasso’s understanding of the realism of his subject by exploring the result of reflections of the artist’s pure emotion as it became associated with the subject’s elemental or primitive shapes and forms. In the early years of the 20th century, the industrial age led to the perfection of the photograph, which reduced the prestige of hand-made art as the primary means of image capture. In reaction to the idea that art offered no greater means of expression than the simple representation of the external world that was much more economically and efficiently captured by the camera, artists such as Pablo Picasso launched into abstraction. They developed the ideas of abstraction as a means o f representing the concept that there remained an element in the world that defied definition and could not be achieved by the photograph. This element was a concept they referred to as the sublime – an idea that remained just out of reach of definition and therefore could only be suggested, never represented. This element has also been referred to as the meaning of an image as opposed to its form. It was the conveyance of this meaning that these artists were trying to suggest was the result of the audience’s understandings of the artist’s conception.

Mental space compared with physical space Essay

Mental space compared with physical space - Essay Example Physical space can be objective as it remains and exists regardless of the thought process of that of the recipient. Mental space ties perception with the physical world. Ones thought process and perception of events may vary depending on the individual. What one may see another may interpret differently. For example, if two people see the exact same car accident, one may have a different story as to how the entire event unfolded compared to that of some one else. There are also various externalities that may affect the perception process leaving ones interpretation to differ from the other. However, citing the example, what was factual is that an accident took place. The physical space that incurred the accident is actual and the car accident is tangible as it can be touched and it exists. Regardless of perception the fact the accident occurred remains and is virtually true. The difference between mental space and physical space can impact ones perception on social, political and culture issues. The mental space encumbers ones immediate experiences, imagination, perceptions and past circumstances that helped mold them into the current person of today. Linking these characteristics to the physical space determines ones view of reality. What may be deemed reality by that person doesnt make that perception true. For instance, using the aforementioned example of the car accident, the bystander who viewed that accident may give testimony to the police about the surrounding events of the car accident. The bystander reports what they believe to be reality when in fact it is only their view of reality. The fact the accident happened is true, however what the bystander reports seeing may not be true however it is their reality. This happens in court testimonies and when it is time to identify the perpetrator. Countless people have been released from prison only after DNA testing proved their innocence. The victims have picked out the

Inuit Education Outline Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Inuit Education Outline - Assignment Example By the 1960’s a global push was underway for â€Å"decolonization† of the education of indigenous communities, which included instruction in native languages (Patrick 255). The reasoning behind this shift was that students would be more successful in their academic pursuits when instructed in their native languages, while such instruction would provide avenues for advancement among adults in indigenous communities. At a deeper level, decolonization of education was linked to the broader political and cultural effort to â€Å"decolonize the mind† of indigenous communities, a phrase made popular through the writings of Franz Fanon. Instruction in Inuit languages would allow students to avoid the destructive colonial condition of viewing oneself and one's communities through the eyes of colonial authority and instead promote the development of a sophisticated, literate Inuit subjectivity. Now, forty years later, bilingual education and other anti-colonial educational reforms have had a chance to take on this enormous task. This paper aims to assess whether the aims of such reforms have been achieved, to note any unintended consequences of the policy and to assess the potential of future reform policy. c. Thesis: Bilingual education had limited success in achieving its original aims. While Inuit subjectivity has been strengthened in the process of policy change, cultural imperialism in education and society as a whole have not been entirely eliminated. a. Bilingual education had limited success in achieving its original aims. While Inuit subjectivity has been strengthened in the process of policy change, cultural imperialism in education and society as a whole have not been entire.

Mental space compared with physical space Essay

Mental space compared with physical space - Essay Example Physical space can be objective as it remains and exists regardless of the thought process of that of the recipient. Mental space ties perception with the physical world. Ones thought process and perception of events may vary depending on the individual. What one may see another may interpret differently. For example, if two people see the exact same car accident, one may have a different story as to how the entire event unfolded compared to that of some one else. There are also various externalities that may affect the perception process leaving ones interpretation to differ from the other. However, citing the example, what was factual is that an accident took place. The physical space that incurred the accident is actual and the car accident is tangible as it can be touched and it exists. Regardless of perception the fact the accident occurred remains and is virtually true. The difference between mental space and physical space can impact ones perception on social, political and culture issues. The mental space encumbers ones immediate experiences, imagination, perceptions and past circumstances that helped mold them into the current person of today. Linking these characteristics to the physical space determines ones view of reality. What may be deemed reality by that person doesnt make that perception true. For instance, using the aforementioned example of the car accident, the bystander who viewed that accident may give testimony to the police about the surrounding events of the car accident. The bystander reports what they believe to be reality when in fact it is only their view of reality. The fact the accident happened is true, however what the bystander reports seeing may not be true however it is their reality. This happens in court testimonies and when it is time to identify the perpetrator. Countless people have been released from prison only after DNA testing proved their innocence. The victims have picked out the

Overseas Chinese and Moon Shadow Essay Example for Free

Overseas Chinese and Moon Shadow Essay Immigrants lives become very difficult when they move to a new country. They are often discriminated against due to their race and/ or nationality. This problem occurs many times throughout Dragonwings, a book by Laurence Yep. In his book, the Chinese characters who immigrate to America face many challenges in their new lives. They are thought of as inferior, have to endure many hardships, and become lonely due to the fact that they must leave the majority of their families in China. In this book, the immigrants face multiple difficulties and challenges in the new world they know as the Land of the Golden Mountain. One challenge that the immigrants face in this story is that they are thought of as inferior by Americans, or demons as they have begun to refer to them. Demons are not accepting of differences; therefore the Chinese are looked down upon, and dont get equal rights and privileges. For example, Moon Shadows grandmother tells him that his father traveled to America to work as a laundryman before he was born. She tells Moon Shadow that gold, in the Land of the Golden Mountain, is everywhere and men can scoop it up by the bucket-full. When he asks why his father does not get enough gold to return home, his grandmother replies, Demons roam the mountain up and down and they beat up any of our men who try to get the gold (6). She mentions that they are allowed to take only a small pinch of it, and only if they do all of the hard, grueling labor that they are told to do. This quote proves that Chinese (Tang) people are belittled. They are forced to work like slaves. Good-paying jobs are very difficult for them to find. They must also be careful when choosing them. Moon Shadow states, There was plenty of money to be made among the demons, but it was also dangerous (1). This states that though there are many job opportunities in America, the lives of Chinese people are sometimes put at risk. This would almost certainly not have been the case if an American were to have the same job. This demonstrates the prejudice which exists against Tang men. The book also mentions that Americans often assume Chinese people are greedy, that they are after Americans money. This fact is proven when Windrider stops to help a man, Mr. Alger, fix his car. After he mends the automobile, Mr. Alger automatically pulls money out of his pocket to tip him. Windrider says modestly, No tip, just happy to look at horseless'(57). Mr. Alger assumes that Windrider only stops to help because he wants money. Moon Shadow goes on to say that the demon stopped and studied Father as you might look at a dog that had suddenly said he was going to the opera (57). This demonstrates Moon Shadows knowledge that white people think Chinese cannot possibly get high-paying jobs due to their lack of skills or importance. These immigrants have to bear much racism and scrutinyand the insecurity that goes with itin their new homeland. Immigrants also have to face and live in many harsh, new conditions. For example, they have to put up with stereotypes and stories about them. This is proven when Moon Shadow is traveling by ship to America to meet his father for the very first time. Moon Shadow is told a story about how the [Tang men] had slept upside-down on top of their heads with knives between their teeth, and so on (11). This shows that the white people are very cruel to the Chinese, even if the story stretches the truth. To make up a story of this violent nature means that it is not far beyond them to do it. Americans also force the Chinese immigrants to live with the constant threat of violence. On one occasion, they go out with the intention of hurting the Chinese, simply for the pleasure of it. Black Dog, a relative of Moon Shadow, states, The demons are all getting drunk and getting ready for beating up Tang men. The word is to stay inside' (29). This further shows that the Chinese must face violence, a new element, in their everyday lives. Last, they must endure harsh conditions when arriving in America for the first time, going through immigration. This is a very long, torturous process. Moon Shadow explains, The demons kept us locked inside a long, two-story warehouse for a week before it was our turn to be questioned (11). This illustrates the fact that life is hardly bearable for them in the Land of the Golden Mountain. Things are very difficult, especially because of the way they are treated. The last and one of the most unbearable elements of all for immigrants is loneliness. Families are separated. Moon Shadows father leaves his wife, mother, and unborn son in China when he goes to live in America. He leaves with the expectation that he will be able to see his family in approximately five years, as most can. Moon Shadow notes, however, though there were longer separations, as with Mother and Father (3). This proves that families can be forced to endure long periods of time without seeing each other. As one might imagine, they become very lonely. Also, they often miss the appearance of the elaborate architecture and color used on buildings in China. San Francisco looks very drab to them in comparison. Moon Shadow thinks, Walking up the street, I nearly lost heart. To me, the wooden houses seemed like shells of wood which terrible monsters had spun about themselves (18). Since he is not used to the box like American homes, they seem quite foreign and even intimidating to him. He misses the familiarity of his home. Moon Shadow also shows signs of loneliness when he says, I did not go to school during the daytime like demon children because the demons would not allow me to go to any of their schools just a few blocks away (50). He does not have any Chinese friends to play with, and he does no get much contact with white children. It is plain to see that Moon Shadow and his relatives face much loneliness in their everyday lives in America. The characters in this book have very difficult lives in their new home, America. They are burdened with many challenges and hardships. Because of this, their lives in America cannot be carefree and happy. Instead they are filled with sorrow, pain, and scrutiny. They must endure the racism and cruel stereotypes that are targeted at them by Americans. They must work extra hard to find and keep good jobs. It becomes evident that their lives so far away from home are barely endurable.

Early life environment and a childs temperament

Early life environment and a childs temperament The question of how dependent a childs temperament is on their environment, biology and other individual differences has been the subject of much debate in the world of psychology. To critically discuss to what extent such factors have on temperament, we should consider what this term means- individual differences in emotional, motor, and attentional reactivity and self-regulation (Rothbart, 1998, p.105-76). This definition considers the childs emotional responses; physical ability; how passionate or responsive the child is and how regulated their sleeping and eating habits are, for example. Possible influences on temperament are nature, including innate characteristics, and nurture, the childs early life environment and socialisation. A childs early life environment itself is affected by a number of factors, such as social-economic status; parenting; culture; school entry age and extracurricular activities to name a few. For the purpose of this essay, the focus will be on social-economic status and parenting. Firstly, individual differences were noted for dimensions such as distractibility and intensity of reaction in children in Chess Thomas (1987, as cited in Roberta, 2009) development of the 9 NYLS (New York Longitudinal Study) dimensions on child temperament. Some newborns were found to cry a lot louder than others if hungry, which showed more apparent intensity in the childs temperament. This indicates that temperament is a result of innate characteristics as at such a young age, little environmental influence is likely to have taken place. Behavioural profiles were also produced using the dimensions and 3 types of temperament were developed from this: Easy, Difficult and Slow to warm up, which were apparently identifiable in children as young as 2-3 years old. There is evidence that caregivers awareness of such individual differences is highly important as this can affect the childs socialisation process developing in early life. For example, those with a Difficult temperament might have more intense reactions and harsher parenting techniques used as a result may not always be helpful. Therefore, though aspects of a childs temperament can be seen as innate, environmental factors and social influences also hold a degree of influence. Parenting practices should be adapted to a Difficult child in order for the parent to optimise their ability to nurture their childs temperament. The NYLS dimensions are still in use today and the construct of child difficultness has been further developed and used in many other measures. However, this could cause issues when considering such research as results will depend on which measure and definition of difficultness is being referred to. Secondly, Kagans (1994) work (as cited in Chess Alexander, 1996) studied temperament by also using a biological approach. 43 children had their heart rates recorded and were observed and rated during 2 simple laboratory tasks. Statistical analysis was used to assess the difference between behavioural inhibitions of the children. Inhibition serves certain social functions such as preventing impulse acts, for example, losing your temper and hitting someone. This relates to impulsivity as an aspect of ones temperament. It was found that inhibited children had a higher and more stable heart rate than uninhibited children. At approximately 5.5 years old, there were a number of significant correlations between heart rate and physiological factors such as pupil dilation during cognitive stress and adrenaline levels. This suggests that individual physiological differences are indicative of varying temperaments in children, in line with other biological studies (Fox Calkins, 1993 as cited i n Rubin et al., 1993). Nevertheless, Kagan commented that environmental factors should be investigated too in order to gain a full picture. The effects of social-economic status can be seen in Dearing et al.s (2001) work investigating associations between children aged 1-36 months and effects of changes in family income by 36 months. Results showed a significant effect of income on children from poor families but no significant effects of income on non-poor families. For families in poverty, childrens school readiness; expressive language and positive social behaviours were negatively affected and behavioural problems more prominent and vice versa. Such research gives support for environment affecting a childs temperament, even at the early age of 36 months. Also, a higher risk for negative outcomes at 36 months was found for those that had spent longer in poverty. Even so, associations cannot be directly translated as causal relationships. It is difficult to be certain that extraneous variables, such as parenting; genetic ability and school standards did not affect the results recorded. Differences could have been due t o variables other than family income but the effect of the duration spent in poverty discourages this assumption. Parenting practices and child temperament were investigated using the questionnaire method. Parent perceptions of toddlers social wariness and shyness at 2 years old predicted their preferences for socialisation strategies at 4 years old (Rubin, Nelson Hastings Asendorpf, 1993). Observations of child-parent interactions were also recorded. It seemed that those parents perceiving their children to be shy, somewhat limited their childs opportunities for independence. This was more evident in those parents that were more anxious. Such parenting styles could make it more difficult for self-regulation to develop and for potential interactions with other children to take place. Those children less capable of self-regulation at an early age may develop independent feeding skills later than others for example, which would probably negatively affect temperament with more irritability occurring during meal times. So not only are parenting styles an influence on temperament, parents perception s of their childs abilities and temperament (inclusive of the factors defined by Rothbart, 1998) and how this affects their child-rearing is also extremely relevant. As parent perceptions were being studied, the questionnaire method used is quite fitting. Despite this, we should take into account social desirability bias and demand characteristics potentially affecting validity. For example, parents may be unwilling to convey their children as shy due to partaking in psychological research. Studies on twins have been carried out in attempt to determine whether biological or environmental factors attribute to a childs temperament. Spinath Angleitner (1998) collected separate mother and father ratings on 354 monozygotic and dizygotic twins ranging from ages 2-14. The twins Emotionality, Activity, Sociability and Shyness were also assessed using the EAS Temperament Survey (Buss Plomin, 1984, as cited in Spinath Angleitner, 1998). On all EAS dimensions, except Emotionality, dizygotic twins showed negative or near-zero correlations and the similarities between monozygotic twins were more than half those held by dizygotic twins. As dizygotic twins are expected to experience similar environmental stimulation, it seems that the much stronger correlations between monozygotic twins similarities would arguably be explained by their genetic similarity. Related findings seem to be obtained in further behavioural genetics research (Kimberly Saudino, 2005) which supports the impor tance of innate characteristics in temperament. Nevertheless, we cannot be sure whether parents ratings were affected by demand characteristics and therefore, the validity of the similarity ratings made between the twin pairs. It could even be argued that similarities were rated on perceived zygosity that is to say, perhaps parents and rating family members perceived more similarities between monozygotic twins because of their physical similarities. Experimental methods would conceivably be more useful for identifying the genetic factors contributory to temperament, but familial observations over time may well be more valid, naturalistic observations of child temperament and similarities. Although such research may suggest that the greater monozygotic correlations support the importance of biology in child temperament, results do not explain how relevant it is and certainly does not definitively give evidence for the nature or nurture debate. For more clarity, it seems that a combi nation of methods should be used to explore the dimensions of temperament. Perhaps teacher ratings could have been used in addition to parent and family member ratings alone. Exploring more within-family differences (Kimberly Saudino, 2005) to account for differential treatment of children within the same family, for example, offers more insight to why different family members temperament can vary across a whole range of behaviour. A greater understanding of the influences on child temperament has major practical implications. For example, certain teaching techniques may help Difficult children focus more in school and increase their productivity as a result. Biological influences are arguably less important, as it would imply that temperament is less changeable than a lot of research seems to suggest. For example, a child of slow to warm up temperament, whilst explicable by nature, could benefit greatly from practice of specifically identified socialisation skills. In addition, labelling children with certain temperaments could prove detrimental to their developing temperament during early years and being aware of this is exceptionally important. To conclude, there is evidence to advocate both nature and nurture contributions to child temperament. Although there is significant evidence for biologys role in temperament, there seems to be a general consensus that environmental factors are ultimately of higher importance, as human experiences and surroundings are so varied from person to person. To better understand child temperament, we should look at the interaction of such biological and environmental factors more closely rather than isolating them. A good example is portrayed by Chess Alexander (1987, as cited in Roberta, 2009), where individual differences from birth are apparent, but, what marks a difference is how those innate characteristics are dealt with by parents, and the effect this will have on other social interactions and thus, how child temperament is developed early on in life.